Type I vs. Type II Errors in Hypothesis Testing

Type I vs. Type II Errors in Hypothesis Testing The statistical practice of hypothesis testing is widespread not only in statistics but also throughout the natural and social sciences. When we conduct a hypothesis test there a couple of things that could go wrong. There are two kinds of errors, which by design cannot be avoided, and we must be aware that these errors exist. The errors are given the quite pedestrian names of type I and type II errors. What are type I and type II errors, and how we distinguish between them?  Briefly: Type I errors happen when we reject a true null hypothesisType II errors happen when we fail to reject a false null hypothesis We will explore more background behind these types of errors with the goal of understanding these statements. Hypothesis Testing The process of hypothesis testing can seem to be quite varied with a multitude of test statistics. But the general process is the same. Hypothesis testing involves the statement of a null hypothesis and the selection of a level of significance. The null hypothesis is either true or false and represents the default claim for a treatment or procedure. For example, when examining the effectiveness of a drug, the null hypothesis would be that the drug has no effect on a disease. After formulating the null hypothesis and choosing a level of significance, we acquire data through observation. Statistical calculations tell us whether or not we should reject the null hypothesis. In an ideal world, we would always reject the null hypothesis when it is false, and we would not reject the null hypothesis when it is indeed true. But there are two other scenarios that are possible, each of which will result in an error. Type I Error The first kind of error that is possible involves the rejection of a null hypothesis that is actually true. This kind of error is called a type I error and is sometimes called an error of the first kind. Type I errors are equivalent to false positives. Let’s go back to the example of a drug being used to treat a disease. If we reject the null hypothesis in this situation, then our claim is that the drug does, in fact, have some effect on a disease. But if the null hypothesis is true, then, in reality, the drug does not combat the disease at all. The drug is falsely claimed to have a positive effect on a disease. Type I errors can be controlled. The value of alpha, which is related to the level of significance that we selected has a direct bearing on type I errors. Alpha is the maximum probability that we have a type I error. For a 95% confidence level, the value of alpha is 0.05. This means that there is a 5% probability that we will reject a true null hypothesis. In the long run, one out of every twenty hypothesis tests that we perform at this level will result in a type I error. Type II Error The other kind of error that is possible occurs when we do not reject a null hypothesis that is false. This sort of error is called a type II error and is also referred to as an error of the second kind. Type II errors are equivalent to false negatives. If we think back again to the scenario in which we are testing a drug, what would a type II error look like? A type II error would occur if we accepted that the drug had no effect on a disease, but in reality, it did. The probability of a type II error is given by the Greek letter beta. This number is related to the power or sensitivity of the hypothesis test, denoted by 1 – beta. How to Avoid Errors Type I and type II errors are part of the process of hypothesis testing. Although the errors cannot be completely eliminated, we can minimize one type of error. Typically when we try to decrease the probability one type of error, the probability for the other type increases. We could decrease the value of alpha from 0.05 to 0.01, corresponding to a 99% level of confidence. However, if everything else remains the same, then the probability of a type II error will nearly always increase. Many times the real world application of our hypothesis test will determine if we are more accepting of type I or type II errors. This will then be used when we design our statistical experiment.

The Early Industrial Revolution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Early Industrial Revolution - Essay Example These colonies in the East and West Indies, and North America, served as an overseas market for England’s domestic goods, and also provided raw material and manufactured goods. The powerful British naval fleet guarded mercantile access to these markets. At the same time, England’s Scientific Revolution resulted in several inventions, such as the spinning jenny and the steam engine, which lowered production costs and market prices, and increased speed. A rapid growth in population and rising standards of living increased mass consumption and stimulated demand. This population growth also provided England with a large labor force. While the economic and political structure of Europe continued to stagnate under the feudal ancien regime, England’s fledgling democracy witnessed the curtailment of the power of the monarchy and the aristocracy, and the emergence of the influential new middle class, for whom the pursuit of money was socially acceptable. Property and contract rights were guaranteed, giving â€Å"England an important "edge" over its more backward European continental rivals† (Roger, webpage). The English Government’s commercial regulations emphasized the domestic economic interest, and supported entrepreneurs. England boasted a higher level of elementary education than Europe, which contributed towards innovation. England’s Transport Revolution, facilitated by improved road, water and rail infrastructure, and heightened by the inherent advantages of a long, indented coastline, numerous rivers and natural harbors, enabled the speedy movement of raw goods to the factories, a nd manufactured goods to the market. The Agricultural Revolution saw the transition from small land holdings into large farms, the introduction of new crop varieties and farm implements, increasing the yield of industrial raw material, such as cotton and grain. This was in contrast to Europe, where subsistence farming

The Hold as Management Tool Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 23750 words

The Hold as Management Tool - Essay Example From this discussion it is clear that  the benefits and disadvantages of the control are also understood through various literature to draw a conclusion. Finally the Paper also makes some recommendations to operate the Control or hold to a possible extent to practice an effective management in the form of Internal control Order and covers the scope and implementation methods in real life.   This study highlights that the work practices of any organization involve certain rules and regulations to be followed by every employee of the company to maintain the standards of organization to give out the best quality of the productivity. These implications involve hold or control to variable extent depending on the needs of the organization and the past experiences and management philosophy towards the employee. The traditional work practices involve highly bureaucratic methods of work adoption, which slowly turned to mechanistic, and modernistic evolution. Still the practice of degree o f hold depends on the utilization of its ethical practices by its managers or leaders. The history reflects the impact of the Control or Hold on the employees in a clear way, so that industry should observe more profitable and productive ways of dealing with employee management. Workplace harassments and bullies create a tremendous liability for the employer by causing stress-related health and safety problems, and driving good employees out of the organization.  ... Finally the Paper also makes some recommendations to operate the Control or hold to a possible extent to practice an effective management in the form of Internal control Order and covers the scope and implementation methods in real life. 2. Introduction Aim: The aim of the paper is to understand the practice of Hold as Management tool to maintain an effective organization. Scope: The paper examines the concept of Power under different organizational design concepts like, leadership practices, Control, Power, authority, delegation and discipline at work site. Objectives of the Report: The paper observes to identify itself with the following objectives: To closely observe the detail characteristics of an effective control system; To explain the nature of power and management control, and review perspectives of organisational power; To explore the process of delegation, and detail a planned and systematic approach to delegation; To examine the concept and importance of Power and Authority; To draw a conclusion on the impact of Hold To make recommendations to effective management system. 3. Main Body of the Report Problem: The work practices of any organization involve certain rules and regulations to be followed by every employee of the company to maintain the standards of organization to give out the best quality of the productivity. These implications involve hold or control to variable extent depending on the needs of the organization and the past experiences and management philosophy towards the employee. The traditional work practices involve highly bureaucratic methods of work adoption, which slowly turned to mechanistic, and modernistic evolution. Still the practice of

In 2012, the European Court of Human Rights endorsed the recognition Essay - 1

In 2012, the European Court of Human Rights endorsed the recognition of the right to truth. Does this open the way for greater accountability in future cases of abuse Critically Discuss - Essay Example The ruling in El-Masri differed from precedential rulings on extraordinary renditions in that it clearly broke the wall of secrecy which normally follows such cases at domestic level. The ruling was intended to ensure that justice was done and the European Conventions of Human Rights (ECHR) was protected, it can be interpreted as the recognition of the right of truth. Furthermore, it has provided the court direction in dealing with similar and related issues of human rights violations and will continue to strive effectively in safeguarding human rights. Prior to this landmark ruling, truth had not been taken or recognized as a right to both victims and nations2. The court in most instances only considered and recognized access to information when dealing with such cases. However, with the widespread secrecy of most of the extraordinary extraditions associated with terrorist suspects, cases of injustices, abuse of rights and lack of accountability continued to be on the rise. The ruling therefore motivates greater accountability in future cases dealing with human rights violation. Before ECtHR recognized truth as a right, there has been clamor for the right to truth in Europe3 due to public anguish towards the high number of cases caused by severe human rights violation and the impunity that the perpetrators of such acts have continued to enjoy even after having contravened the ECHR. Today, the right to truth is one of the most fundamental issues in Europe. It is taken to be the most recent human right construction. The recognition of it is a promising shift from conventional justice model towards a victim based remedy that is intended to benefit both survivors of human rights violation and European societies as a whole. To look at the right of truth and its impact in terms of accountability, decades of nation sponsored terror in European countries should be considered.

Judaism :: essays research papers

Early History of Judaism It has been argued that Judaism can be seen not only as a single religion, but as a group of similar religions. It has also been pointed-out that through all the trials and tribulations that Judaism has suffered through, that there have been common themes that have proven omni-pervasive. Any institution with roots as ancient and varied as the religion of the Jews is bound to have a few variations, especially when most of its history takes place in the political and theological hot spot of the Middle East. In this discussion, many facets of Judaism will be examined, primarily in the three temporal subdivisions labeled the Tribal / Pre-Monarchy Period, the Divided Monarchy, and the Hasmonean / Maccabean and Roman Era. Among all the time periods where the religion has been split, these three seem to be the most representative of the forces responsible. As for a common thread seen throughout all Judiasms, the area of focus here is the place associated with the religion : Jerusalem. This topic will be covered in detail first, and then the multiple Judaism arguments will be presented. In this way, it is possible to keep a common focus in mind when reading about all the other situations in which the religion has found itself. A brief conclusion follows the discussion. A Place to Call Home No other religion has ever been so attached to its birthplace as Judaism. Perhaps this is because Jews have been exiled and restricted from this place for most of their history. Jerusalem is not only home to Judaism, but to the Muslim and Christian religions as well. Historically this has made it quite a busy place for the various groups. Jerusalem is where the temple of the Jews once stood; the only place on the whole Earth where one could leave the confines of day to day life and get closer to God. In 586 BCE when the temple was destroyed, no Jew would have denied Jerusalem as being the geographic center of the religion. From that point on, the Jewish people have migrated around the world, but not one of them forgets the fact that Jerusalem is where it all began. It is truly a sacred place, and helps to define what Judaism means to many people; a common thread to run through all the various splinters of the religion and help hold them together. Even today, as the Jewish people have their precious Jerusalem

Examples in “The Brutal Business of Boxing”

â€Å"The Brutal Business of Boxing† written by author John Head, uses all three forms of examples: the extended example, the sentence length example, and the single example. The extended example lies in the form of the entire essay. The entire essay is a description of one person is specific, where physical and personality characteristics are developed paragraph by paragraph. Due to the fact that the descriptions are centered on one person, this is an extended example.However, sentence length examples are included in every paragraph. Every paragraph in the essay is quite short and centers on providing information around the central topic of the essay, Muhammad Ali. The author uses single examples most often in the essay. Some examples of this are: â€Å"confident, articulate, charismatic† (par. 2); â€Å"lightning quick jabs† (par. 4); and â€Å"slow shuffle† (par. 6). These single examples highlight the character traits that the author would like the rea der to envision.â€Å"The Brutal Business of Boxing† uses all three types of examples throughout the essay to develop it. The entire essay is an extended example; each paragraph contains sentence level examples, and each sentence contains colorful single examples. The essay is a wonderful and multi leveled model of an example essay. Reference Head, John. â€Å"The Brutal Business of Boxing. † Found in Wordsmith:A Guide to Writing. 3rd ed. by Pamela Arlov. Prentice Hall: NJ. 2006. p. 589-90.

Common Problems Faced by International Students in the UK

In the last few years, studying abroad has become an increasingly popular choice for higher education among international students (Accessibility Navigation, 2014). An average of 10% of students in universities all across the UK are international students from countries all over the world. (Accessibility Navigation, 2014). Although the experience is different for each individual student, there are many common problems that international students face. Those problems include: culture shock to varying degrees coupled with emotional issues(Bailey, 2005), Language barriers along with other communication problems (Sherry et al, 2009), and academic problems due to a change in school curriculum (Ramachandran, 2011). This essay will expand on the†¦show more content†¦It can be argued that if international students are given accurate information on what to expect, the culture shock can be minimised or avoided(Sherry et al, 2009). Instead of limiting the orientation experience to gett ing a geographical and academic feel of the campus, the students should also be given the opportunity to have a supervised cultural feel of their new country of study (Turner, 2009). Another solution that has been suggested is that the institution organise more formalised social interaction (Sherry et al, 2009). Instead of leaving students solely to their own devices where making new friends and meeting people in their new community is involved, the institution can organise events and activities that group students from different parts of the world together (Sherry et al, 2009). A common suggestion is that social clubs be put in place to bridge the gap between international students and other students on campus. One main focus of these social clubs would be to improve the social interaction and verbal communication skills of international students (Sherry et al, 2009). The social clubs could also be a way for the international students to overcome the language barrier (Sherry et al, 2009). Feedback and past data from international students on the steps taken by the institution to promote integration could also be helpful in setting precedent for other action to stem from (Sherry et al, 2009).Show MoreRelatedLanguage Is Not the Only Problem Faced by International Students in the Uk. to What Extent Do You Agree with This Statement?1175 Words   |  5 PagesLanguage is not the only problem faced by international students in the UK. To what extent do you agree with this statement? International students are very important for the economic growth of the UK. Number of international students in UK was about 405,910 in 2009 and in 2010 it increased up to 428,225 (which is about 6%). These students play a very important role in UK’s economy and bring huge income to the country. Shane Spiers, managing director of UNITE says The UKs higher educationRead MoreThe Challenges Facing International Students in Higher Education1294 Words   |  6 Pageschallenges facing international students in higher education and suggest some possible solutions. Tutor Name: Kinga Maior Student ID Number: 2060494 Date of Submission: Thursday 2nd May 2013 Word Count: 1,004 The number of international students studying in the UK has soared over the past decade due to globalization. Paige (1990) defined International students as those individuals who temporarily lived in the foreign countries and received the education as exchanged students. The main reasonRead MoreUnderstanding The Uk Culture By Foreign National Students1146 Words   |  5 Pagesunderstand in UK culture by foreign national student. There are 13 questionnairespre-sessional student at Middlesex University. We collect feedback from 13 pre-sessional students which are coming from different culture. The way of analysis these questionnaires used Zhou (2008) and also Hofsted’s, In that four dimension to comparing with national culture. In the research eleven people are coming from age belowthirty. The 47% people isquite confidence to speck with native people. In our research UK cultureRead MoreThe Importance Of Cultural Diversity For Chinese Students834 Words   |  4 Pages(2008) foc uses on the importance of cultural diversity, especially respecting and accepting ethnic minority group. More voluntary work in different sectors will be available for Chinese students. Also, local government and service organizations have advocated that local people need to be open for international students and are encouraged to make friends with each other (Oatey and Xiong, 2006). Such multiple cultural networks will be beneficial to avoid social exclusion effectively. As for ChineseRead MoreEconomic Integration Is Defined As An Economic Adjustment1650 Words   |  7 Pagesthen they proceed on to the ‘preferential trade area’ stage, followed by a free trade area. The fourth stage is when participating countries would come together to form a custom union, where they would have a common external trade policy, and the next stage would be the formation of a common market. After, there would be a fiscal and monetary union of all the countries involved, and lastly, a political union. The notion of the European Union might sound unexacting at the beginning, but it has aRead MoreThe Common Problems Faced By International Students Essay1388 Words   |  6 PagesThe most common problems faced by international students in UK Feeling Homesick You may feel homesick, as do many students, however for international students it is more difficult to deal with. Students from this country may be able to return home for a visit to help alleviate their homesickness. International students are not able to do this. This means that you may need more support than home students. You may need to talk to someone in confidence about how you are feeling. The counselling serviceRead MoreUnited Kingdom Case Study962 Words   |  4 Pagesinternal business within the United Kingdom and became very successful. The United Kingdom is known for striving progression with innovations. They greatly encourage and support entrepreneurs, creatives and even problem solvers who can assist with helping the economy for the country. This student will be going over a couple of different factors and issues that businesses will have to face in the United Kingdom. Overview The United Kingdom is located in Europe and made up with England, Scotland, WalesRead MoreThe Overall Projects Calls For Regression Essay1657 Words   |  7 Pagesfrom the BBC’s publication of electoral commission results. Independent Variables The model we design here is based on a number of factors supported in the literature as economic measures that should be able to capture exposure of the economy to international pressure – as well as general measure of economic deprivation, in addition to immigration as both an economic and cultural explanation. Unemployment (NOMIS) Unemployment was based on Model Based NOMIS unemployment from July 2015 – June 2016. ImportantRead MoreComparison of Ptv and Geo1457 Words   |  6 Pagesto the rest on TV, regional languages programs, local and provincial matters | Male, Females, Adults 35-50 age bracket, early risers (morning news), English speaking segment, Kashmiris | News Bulletin | Covers current affairs on national and international levelEnglish news,Regional Languages newsKashmiri news bulletin. | Adults, Kashmiri people | Kashmir reports | Kashmir issue highlighted every evening which is not covered by other channels | Adults males and females, politicians | National EventsRead MoreEssay about Dominos Pizza Business Environment3835 Words   |  16 Pages - the nature of UK economic system – pag.11 TASK 2 – b - how government manage UK economy – pag.11 – fiscal and monetary policies - pag. 11 – 12 TASK 2 – c - competition policy and regulatory mechanism in UK – pag.12 TASK 3 – a - market structure of Dominos Pizza – pag. 13 TASK 3 – b - market influence in Dominos Pizza – pag. 14 – 15 TASK 3 – c - cultural environment in Dominos Pizza – pag. 15 TASK 4 – a - international market in UK – pag. 16 – TASK